Attachment

Paper 1 – Revision notes


Caregiver-infant interactions




Reciprocity
- coordinated action w/ caregiver
- like conversation
- lays foundation - attachment




Interactional Synchrony
Meltzoff
- 2-3yrs - imitate caregiver
- later study - 3days = imitation
                               = not learned
                               = innate




Real or pseudo-imitation
Piaget
- true imitation develops - end of year
Response training
- repeat behaviour = rewarded
                             = operant cond
- caregiver smile = rewarding
   = infant repeats
   = pseudo-imitation


Evaluation


1) problems testing infant behaviour
- infant mouth - constantly moving
- difficulty distinguishing general activity
  + imitation




2) Failure to replicate
- studies ^ findings
- marian - infants could distinguish
                live from video interactions
                of mother
 = child not responding to caregiver


3) Individual differences
- variation between infants
- strongly attached = greater interactional
                                synchrony
- more imitation = better quality relationship
  at 3 months




The development of attachment

Stage 1 - indiscriminate
0-2months
- similar response to all objects
- reciprocity + interactional synchrony
   = role in attachment

Stage 2 - beginning of attachment
4months
- more social
- human company
- distinguish familiar + unfamiliar objects

Stage 3 - discriminate
7months
- separation anxiety
- primary attachment
- quality over quantity - relationship
65% - attach to mother

Stage 4 - multiple attachment
soon after
- one month after - 29% multiple attachments
  = siblings, father
- secondary attachment

Evaluations

1) unreliable data
- mothers report
- less sensitive - less likely to report it
   = desirability
- systematic bias - invalid

2) Biased sample
- working class - cant generalise
- 1960s - parental care has changed
- father - more stay home father, mother work

3) multiple attachments equivalent?
- secondary attachment - important
- father - special care
- siblings - teach negotiation w/ peers
   = attachment - equivalent


Animal studies of Attachment

Lorenz
Gosling eggs
Procedure
separate mother - incubator
hatched - see Lorenz = imprint
= follow Lorenz not mother
- marked gosling - put together
Findings
- divided self up
- didn't recognise mother
- imprinting - critical period
long lasting effects
    - mating preferences

Harlow
Rhesus monkeys
Procedure
wire mothers
- cloth, not cloth
- feeding bottle
Findings
- more time with cloth mother
- short time with bottles mother
frightened - clung cloth mother
- not about food but contact comfort
long lasting effects
    - abnormal - socially, sexually
3 months - recover
6 months - no recovery

Evaluations

1) confounding variable
- 2 different heads
- clashes - cloth on not
- cloth mother was mor appealing

2) generalising animals to humans
- humans differ - conscious decisions
- animals useful to understand human

3) Ethics of harlow
- long lasting harm
- justified - improved understanding
- better human care
- benefits outweigh cost


Explanations of Attachment: learning theory

learned, black slates, experiences

Classical conditioning
Pavlov - innate stimulus response
UCS(food) = UCR(pleasure)
NS(mother) + UCS = UCR
CS(mother) = CR(pleasure)

Operant conditioning
Skinner - drive reduction
- hungry - drive to reduce - discomfort
- fed = rewarding = positive reinforcement
- behaviour repeated
Food - primary reinforcer
Carer - Secondary reinforce

Social Learning Theory
Bandura - Modelling
- observe parent
- imitate affection

Evaluations

1) contact comfort - more important
- food = key element
Harlow - comfort is more important

2) theory has explanatory power
- some value
- learn through association
food - X main reinforcer
attention = main reinforcer - rewarding

3) driver reduction - ignored today
- popular 1940s
- limited explanation
- ppl increase discomfort = bungee jumping


Explanations of attachment: Bowlby's Theory

Critical period
- 3-6months
- difficult forming attachment after
Bolwby - sensitivity
- strongly attached - responsive mothers
Social releaser
- elicit caregiving eg - Smiling
- innate mechanism - attachment
Monotropy
- primary attachment caregiver
- special bond

Consequence
Internal working model
short term - insight to caregiver
long term - template for future relations
= expectations

Evaluations

1) is attachment adaptive
- less critical for survival
- attachment develops at 3months
- late to protect infants
- distant ancestors - vital - attach - birth - survive

2) sensitive period rather than Critical
- developmental window
       - most receptive
- less likely after - not impossible

3) multiple attachments vs monotropy
- secondary attachment contribute
   - social developments
- healthy develop - requires one central person


Ainsworth strange: types of attachment

Procedure
baby, mum, room, stranger, play
- separation
- reunions
- stranger
- exploration
Findings
Secure attachment
  - distress - stranger
  - easily soothed
  - function alone
Insecure-Avoidant
  - avoid interaction
  - little separation response
  - little care - reunion
  - happy to explore
Insecure-Resistant
  - seeks+resist intimacy
  - distress - separation
  - conflicting desires


Evaluations


1) other attachment types
- insecure disorganised
  - lack consistent patterns
  - dealing stress - incoherent
  - switch - secure to insecure


2) observation - reliable
- inter-rater - almost accurate
- .95 accurate
- reliable


3) application
- interventions strategies
- better understand infant
- disordered caregiver - 60% - 15%
- secure  32% - 40%




Cultural variations in Attachment


IJzendoom
Procedure
- meta analysis - attachment behaviour
- eight countries
Findings
- secure - most common
- insecure-avoidant - second common
                              - except isreal + japan
- secure = norm


Cultural similarities
- Tronick
 - African tribe
 - breastfed - different women
 - slept with mother - monortropy


Cultural differences
- German - insecure
- interpersonal distance
  - no proximity seeking
= different childcare practices
= different response


Evaluations


1) similarities not innate
- due to mass media
- idea of parenting spread
- increase in global culture




Bowlby's Theory of maternal Deprivation


infant - warm, continuos relationship
         = normal mental health


critical period
- denied care = emotionally disturbed
- separation effects child within 2yrs
- deprivation - long lsting harm
                    = maladjustment, depression


Key study
44 thieves
- affectionless psychopaths
Findings
- affectionless psychopaths - Frequent
                                            separation
                                           - 86%
- control group - no separation
- thieves - 39% separation


Evaluations


1) Physical + emotional separation
- emotional = factor
- depressed - mother physically present
                  - unable to give care
- depressed mothers - 55% - insecure children


2) Application
- hospitals
- time with parents
- visiting encouraged now


3) individual differences
- not all children affected
    - emotional disruption
secure - cope well
insecure - distress




Romanian Orphans: Institutionalisation


Key study
Rutter
- 165 Romanian orphans
- institutionalised
- 111 adopted before 2
- 54 before 4
findings
first - Romanian lagged behind british
        - physically, cognitively, socially
by 4 - some caught up
(adopted withing 6months)
- dificits remain - adopted after 6months
= long term consequence - less sever


Effects of institutionalisation
- Physical underdevelopment
- intellectual underfunctioning
- disinhibited attachment
- Poor parenting


Evaluation


1)  individual differences
- some don't form primary attachments
    = unable to recover
- not true - child smile more
          = special attention
          = some attachment


2) Application
- institution care improved
- hospital focus on children


3) value of longitudinal studies
- benefits are large
- no mistaken conclusions
      = major effects due to institution care




Influence of early attachment


Internal working model
- learns about relationship through
  experience
- predict future behaviour


Key study
Hazen/Shaver
procedure
- Love quiz
- current, childhood attachment questions
620 responses
Findings
56% - secure
25% - avoidant
19% resistant
positive correlation - attachment type + love
secure - love = happy experience
           - accept support, last 10yrs


Behaviours influenced - IWM
childhood friendships
secure - less isolate, more popular, easy relations
Poor Parenting
Harlows - monkey, poor attach = poor parenting
Romantic Relationships
Hazen shaver - link attachment+relationships
                       - longer lasting - secure
Mental health
lack attachment(critical period
 = lack internal working model


Evaluations


1) Correlational research
- no cause and effect
- possible cause - innate temperament
- temperament - parent response
   = factor


2) Retrospective classification
- self assessment on attachment
- memories not accurate
- unreliable


3) overly determinist
- early experience = fixed effect 
   - insecure - doomed
- not true - happy adult relationships
        - despite not being securely attached

Psychopathology

Paper 1 – Revision notes


Definitions of Abnormality


deviation from social norm
- SN - socially constructed, implicit
deviation = abnormal
eg - antisocial personality behaviour


Evaluations


1) depends on culture
- abnormal in one culture
eg women driving


2) Time
- SN change over time
- abnormality not fixed
eg - homosexuality


3) lead to abuse
- discrimination
- demonises individual
- promotes conformity


Deviation from Statistical frequency
- extreme behaviour - infrequent
= abnormal
eg - IQ - 70-130
below 70 = intellectual disability


Evaluations


1) Desirability
- negative behaviour - frequent
eg - domestic violence
- positive behaviour - abnormal
eg - high IQ (infrequent)


2) cut off point
- subjectively determined
- strict boundaries
example
- IQ - 71 = normal
- IQ - 69 = abnormal
   = unfair


3) Discrimination
eq - homosexuality - infrequent - abnormal


Failure to function
- inability complete daily tasks
1- cant conform to interpersonal rules
2- personal distress
3- dangerous behaviour


Evaluation


1) some abnormality doesn't prevent function
- serial killer = work, families


2) who judges
- not stressful for person
eg - OCD - washing hands - no stress


3) disorders help function
- eating disorder - model = work


Deviation - ideal mental health
jahoda - SPAAMI
- self esteem
- personal growth
- autonomy
- accurate perception of reality
- mastery of environment
- integration


Evaluations


1) high criteria
- impossible to fit all
- majority viewed - abdnormal


2) Cultrually relative
- collectivist - don't value independence
   - group behaviours


3) cant compare mental + physical
- physical health - objective
- mental health - subjective




Characteristics of Mental Disorder


Phobias


Emotional
- persistent fear
- excessive/unreasonable
- anxiety/panic
- out of proportion - real danger


Behavioural
- avoidance - spiders
- interferes - daily routine


Cognitive
- irrational thoughts
- resist rationality
- recognises irrationality eventually


Depression


Emotional
- sadness - empty, worthless. negative
- loss of interest - despair, lack control
- Anger - at others or self


Behavioural
- reduced activity level
- tiredness
- affect sleep/appetite


Cognitive
- negative self concept
- guilt, worthlessness
- negative view of world


OCD


Emotional- anxiety, distress
- aware of excessive behaviour
  = shame, embarrassment


Behavioural
- intrusive thoughts
  = doubts, images, impilses
- uncontrollable - creates anxiety


Cognitive
- compulsive behaviour - reduce anxiety
- repetitive - handwashing
- unrealistic behaviour


behavioural approach - explaining phobias


classical conditioning - acquire phobia
- association
little albert
NS - white rat
UCS - loud noise, UCR - fear
UCS + NS  = UCR
CS - rat = CR - fear
- generalised phobia - white objects


Operant Conditioning - maintain phobia
- reward
- avoidance = reinforcing(rewarding)
  = negative reinforcement


Social learning
- learning from others (modelling)
- see others fear = we fear


Evaluation


1) Diathesis stress model
- not everyone learns fear
- genetic vulnerability - mental disorder
- triggered - life event


2) Support for social learning
Bandura
- confederate - fake pain buzzer
- ppts - emotional reaction - buzzer
- acquire fear


3) Biological preparedness
- genetically programmed - association
   = life-threatening = fear (ancient fears)
behavioural - not only explanation




Behavioural approach - treating Phobias


Systematic Desensitisation


Counter-conditioning
- Taught new association
  = relaxation
- Reciprocal inhibition - relax inhibits anxiety


Relaxation
- relaxation techniques - breathing - slow
- visualisation - peaceful scene


Desensitisation hierarchy
- gradually introducing phobia
- not overwhelming
- reduces anxiety


Alternative - Flooding
- learn relaxation techniques
- exposed to extreme phobia
- adrenaline decreases
- relaxation


Evaluation


1) successful
- range of phobias
- 75% patients respond to SD
- in vivo - most successful


2) not appropriate for all phobias
- SD - not effective - evolutionary phobias
- SD - effective - personal experience Pho


3) Individual differences
- flooding not for everyone
- highly traumatic
  - can quit during - reduces effectiveness




Cognitive approach - explaining Depression


Ellis ABC model
A - activating event (fired)
B - Beliefs (hated me)
C - Consequence - irrational response
                          - unhealthy emotion
                          = depression
Mustabatory thinking
- irrational beliefs
  eg- must do well or im worthless
- disappointment, depression
failing exam - irrational belief
                     = failed bc im stupid


Becks - Negative triad
depressed ppl have..
Negative schema - negative view of world
 - lead to systematic cognitive biases
Negative triad
pessimistic - irrational views of:
Self - (undesirable)
The world - (prefer other company)
The future - (will be alone)


Evaluation


1) Blames client not situational factors
- gives power to client to change
X - overlooks situation
   = family, environment, lifestyle


2) Applications - Therapy
- CBT - consistent best treatment
  = especially with drug treatment
supports theory - challenging irrationality


3) irrational beliefes - realist
- depressive realist - see things for what
they are
- depressed ppl - accurate estimates of
disasters
(sadder but wiser effect)




Cognitive approach - treating Depression


Cognitive-behaviour Therapy - CBT
REBT
Ellis extends ABC:
Challenging irrational thought
D - disputing irrational thoughts
E - Effective attitude to life
F - Feelings produced
- Logical disputing - illogical thinking
- Empirical disputing - inconsistent with reality
- Pragmatic disputing - usefulness of beliefs
  = effective disputing changes self-defeating
     beliefs


Homework
- assignment
  eg - ask on date - fear rejection
test irrational beliefs against reality
practice rational beliefs


Behavioural Activation
- depressed clients - more active
- more active - more reward
- identify activity - anticipate cognitive obstacles


Unconditional Positive regard
- convince - value
- therapist - respect, value
   = change in beliefs


Evaluations


1) Research support
- 90% success - REBT
- 27 sessions
- 75 studies - some CBT is better than none


2) Individual differences
- CBT - less suitable - high irrationality
                               - rigid/resistant to change
- ppl prefer sharing worries that solving
- exclude cognitive effort


3) Alternative treatments
- Antidepressants - SSRI's
- less effort for client
- used in conjuction to CBT - effective
   = helps to cope


Biological Approach - Explaining OCD


Genetic Explanations
COMT gene
- regulates production - dopamine
- common in OCD - higher level dopamine

SERT gene
- affects serotonin transport
- decreases level
- study - two families -6/7= OCD
  = mutation or SERT gene
Diathesis-stress
- genes creates vulnerability
- other factors - cause OCD - develop
- posses gene - no ill effect.


Neural Explanations
Abnormal levels of Neurotransmitters
- Dopamine - abnormally high
Animal studies - enhance dopamine
                      = stereotyped movements
                      = similar to OCD
- increase serotonin - decrease OCD



Abnormal Brain Circuit
- frontal lobes - abnormal - OCD
damaged caudate nucleaus -
fails to surpress minor worry signals
signals Thalamus - worry - OFC
-PET scans - high OFC activity




Evaluations


1) Research support genes + OFC
- MRI scans
   - OCD patient
   - immediate family - no OCD
   - Unrelated healthy ppl
- relative - reduced grey matter
               - key regions - OFC
          = anatomical differences - inherited
= brain scans - detect OCD risks


2) Alternative explanations
Two-process model
Classical - NS - dirt = anxiety
Operant - maintained - avoiding
- link learned
Treatment
- ERP - exposed to fear
         - prevented from compulsive behaviour
- high success rate




Biological Approach - Treating OCD


Antidepressants - SSRI's
- increases serotonin levels
   - normalises - worry circuit
- reduces anxiety
re-absoption of serotonin is inhibited
  = increase serotonin


Antidepressants - Tricyclics
- blocks transporter mechanism
   = reabsorbs serotonin + noradrenalin
- targets multiple neurotransmitters
X - greater side-effects
 = second line treatment


Anti-anxiety drugs
- BZs reduce anxiety
- Enhance neurotrans - GABA
GABA - reacts - special site
increase chloride ions - slows down activity
  = feel relaxed


Evaluations


1)Drugs are cost effective and non-disruptive:
- cheaper than psychological treatment.
- They are non-disruptive - quicker than
psychological therapies.


2) Drugs have high side-affects:
- indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive
- Tricyclics - more serious


3)Drug therapy is effective at tackling OCD symptoms:
-SRIs work best with psychological treatment- CBT
- symptoms decrease 70% - SSRIs